What is a semiconductor chip?

A semiconductor chip (also called a microchip or integrated circuit) is a very small electronic device made from a semiconductor material, such as silicon. It is the brain of any electronic device, such as mobile phones, laptops, computers, smartwatches, cars and even rockets.

This tiny chip contains billions of tiny switches (transistors) that control the flow of electricity. These transistors work together to process data, store information and help the device function properly.

 

How does it work?

The main job of a semiconductor chip is to control the flow of electricity. Semiconductor materials have a special property: they are neither perfect conductors of electricity nor insulators. This property is what makes them so special.

Inside the chip, these transistors are switched on or off, which represents data in the form of binary code (0s and 1s). When a transistor is turned on, electricity flows and when it is turned off, electricity stops flowing. The pattern of these millions of transistors turning on and off is what performs all kinds of digital tasks, such as calculations, data storage and following commands.

 

How was it made?

The manufacture of a semiconductor chip is a very complex and precise process called fabrication. This process takes place in several stages:

Silicon wafer: First, pure silicon is melted to form a large crystal, which is then cut into thin, round slices. These are called wafers.

Masking & Lithography: A layer of a special material (photoresist) is applied on the wafer. The circuit pattern is then imprinted on the wafer using a ‘mask’, much like a stamp.

Etching: The parts of the wafer that are not imprinted with the circuit pattern are removed.

Doping: Then, certain impurities (such as phosphorus or boron) are added to silicon to change its properties. This process creates P-N junctions, which are the basis of transistors.

Layering: Several more layers are added to the wafer, including insulators and metal layers, so that the transistors can be connected to each other.

Cutting: After the entire process, many chips are formed on a large wafer. These are cut with a diamond blade and divided into individual chips.

Packaging & Testing: Finally, these chips are put into a plastic or ceramic package, their pins are connected, and then their functionality is tested.

Who invented the semiconductor chip?

The semiconductor chip (integrated circuit) was invented by two different people at almost the same time.

Jack Kilby: He created the first integrated circuit in 1958 while working at Texas Instruments. His invention was called hybrid IC.

 

Robert Noyce:

He invented the monolithic integrated circuit in 1959 while working at Fairchild Semiconductor.

Both these scientists are credited with this invention, which laid the foundation of modern electronics.

 

Semiconductor chip manufacturing in India

India is working rapidly towards becoming self-reliant in the manufacturing of semiconductor chips. Recently, India launched its first indigenous 32-bit microprocessor chip ‘Vikram’.

Who made it: The chip has been made by ISRO’s Semiconductor Lab (SCL) in Mohali, Punjab.

For whom: The chip is specially designed to work in the extreme environment of space, and will be used in ISRO’s future space missions.

Government effort: The Government of India has announced massive investments and subsidies to promote the semiconductor industry under the ‘Semicon India’ program, to encourage foreign companies to set up fabrication units in India.

This is a huge step under initiatives like ‘Make in India’ and ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’.

India’s Semiconductor Industry: A Detailed Overview

India, which has been a large consumer of semiconductor chips till now, is now moving towards becoming a major global manufacturer in this sector. This change is coming from the visionary policies of the government and large investments from the private sector.

1. India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

In December 2021, the Government of India launched the ‘India Semiconductor Mission’ (ISM) with an outlay of Rs 76,000 crore. Its main objective is to establish a strong ecosystem for semiconductor and display manufacturing in India.

Main objectives of the mission:

Financial assistance: To provide financial incentives to semiconductor fab, display fab, and design companies.

Skill development: To train skilled professionals for this industry.

Research and development (R&D): To promote innovation in design and fabrication.

Global collaboration: To facilitate technology transfer by partnering with international companies.

2. Major semiconductor projects and companies in India

Following the government’s initiative, several large Indian and foreign companies have announced to invest in India.

Micron Technology: US chip giant Micron Technology has announced to invest in semiconductor fab, display fab, and design companies.

Micron is setting up a state-of-the-art semiconductor assembly and testing (ATMP) facility in Sanand, Gujarat. This is the largest semiconductor investment in India.

Tata Electronics: Tata Group has also ventured into the semiconductor industry. It is building a chip fabrication plant in Dholera, Gujarat, while setting up a packaging unit in Assam.

CG Power: CG Power is setting up a semiconductor assembly and testing plant in Gujarat in collaboration with Japan’s Renesas Electronics and Thailand’s Stars Microelectronics.

Vedanta-Foxconn: Even though their partnership has broken up, Vedanta is still working on plans to set up a semiconductor fab and display fab in India.

Apart from these projects, several Indian companies such as Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), HCL Technologies and MosChip Technologies are also active in the sector.

3. India’s first indigenous chip: ‘Vikram’

 

India has achieved a significant milestone in semiconductor design.

Vikram Chip: It is India’s first fully indigenous 32-bit microprocessor chip, developed by ISRO’s Semiconductor Lab (SCL).

Use: It is specially designed for strategic sectors like space and defense, where reliability is very important.

Significance: This chip will reduce India’s dependence on imports and promote ‘Make in India’.

4. Challenges and future prospects for India

 

India’s semiconductor industry is still in its infancy and faces some major challenges:

High cost and capital: It takes billions of dollars of investment to set up a semiconductor fab.

Technical expertise: There is a lack of high-level technical expertise and skilled workforce to work in this sector.

Water and electricity requirement: Fabrication plants require huge quantities of pure water and uninterrupted power supply to run.

Despite these challenges, India has a huge opportunity:

Domestic demand: India is a huge electronics market in the world, which drives domestic demand for chips.

Design expertise:Indian companies have strong expertise in software and chip design.

Goverment support: Government policies like the ‘India Semiconductor Mission’ provide a strong foundation for this industry to grow.

Q1. What is the difference between a semiconductor and a conductor?

Ans: Electricity flows easily in conductors (such as copper), while electricity does not flow in insulators (such as plastic). Semiconductors (such as silicon) lie between the two, where the flow of electricity can be controlled.

Q2. How are chips made so small?

Ans: The chip-making process uses advanced technology, such as nano-lithography, which helps billions of transistors fit into a small space.

Q3. Where are semiconductor chips used?

Ans: Semiconductor chips are used in almost every electronic device, such as smartphones, computers, TVs, cars, air conditioners, medical equipment, and even toys.

Q4. What is the significance of the ‘Vikram’ chip made in India?

Ans: The manufacture of ‘Vikram’ chip makes India self-reliant in semiconductor technology. It is important for our national security and space missions as it frees us from dependence on foreign technology.